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24 Chapter
2. State of the Art of Application Development Processes
unusual practice. The di culty is to let this creativity process converge in feasible
and realistic concepts. This requires good management skills for the session leader
as the stories per-se do not necessarily guide towards solutions users and developers
can agree upon. Constructions
and Prototypes allow end-users to report on their experiences and
needs by artistic methods. These methods can provide another way of expression. In
contrast to stories the users are forced to use material, e.g. collages
[ Sanders 2000
] , to
express themselves. This way of expression represents an unknown medium for the
user and (hopefully) leads to a more thorough reflection on the users environment.
It is claimed, that this approach gives access to emotional sides of experience, reveals
unique personal histories and generates a subjective perspective on tasks. Proto-
types confront people with technology: First, end-users are asked to think about
technology they have not previously experienced and, second, end-users are asked
to reshape technologies [
Bødker et
al. 1993 ]
. Low-tech prototyping [
Muller 1992
] can
bring new insights through diverse perspectives: Understanding and experimenting
helps to explore the own understanding of another ones position, questioning can
discover and resolve conflicts. Furthermore, participants can incorporate and ex-
press their ideas, foster working relations by shared ownership of resulting designs,
and measure the success of practical applications implemented in low-tech material.
Cooperative prototyping [
Madsen and Aiken 1993
] enhances communication with
end-users, improves incorporation of end-user insights into prototypes and yields a
stronger collective ownership and collective action-planning by the team. However,
breakdowns in the design-process can be time-consuming. Iterative prototypes o
er another solution: Here, a system is delivered to the end-user as a series of iterative
prototypes with gradually added functionality
[ Trigg 2000
] . The prototype should
function as a crucial artifact in the end-users work. In all cases the end-users ac-
tions help to shape the technology, to understand limiting constraints stemming
from technology and to improve the contextual grounding of the design in end-users
work practices. This further enhances the conversation between user and developer.
However, insu cient knowledge about technological opportunities at the user-side
may be a limiting factor when developing innovative solutions.
Discussion Participatory design considers users and other stakeholders already during early
phases of the development. Deliberative use of participatory design increases com-
munication e ectiveness, team coherence, innovation, and the quality of outcome.
This can foster critical discussions and reflections to challenge assumptions and
create new technology solutions. This requires active participation of the users.
However, including users into the design process may be expensive and delay the
implementation phase. It further can force the designer to compromise, to satisfy in-
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